According to some:

Much work has gone into the study of disasters in the past and much has been learned which is useful. For those interested in knowing what has already been learned about disasters from previous experiences, the following gives a kind of formal framework within which understanding of the current disaster may be increased.


Listed are the most commonly found phases in a disaster. Not all disasters follow the same sequences. For examples, earthquakes, fires, explosions, crashes, etc., do not generally give much (if any) warning, while tornadoes, floods, tidal waves and others do.





1. Warning

There is little support from direct experiences that people will panic when warned of impending disaster. Any warning message must be clear, specific, immediate and personal in order to be effective. If it is vague, unclear and leaves the individual with as many choices as he had before, it is almost certain to be ineffective. Among the reasons for disbelief and reluctance to act on warnings are:
Lack of past experience with disasters,
Delusion of personal invulnerability,
Reluctance to abandon property and personal possessions,
Inability to adopt a new frame of reference so as to expect unusual events,
Over dependency on protecting authorities, and
Over eagerness to seize upon reassuring communications.

When people have no prior warning, the recognition of danger is frequently delayed. People tend incorrectly to associate disaster signs with familiar or normal events, e.g., carbon monoxide or other toxic agents’ affects may be attributed to chronic ailments or the roar of high winds in the vortex of a tornado may be interpreted as the sound of a train passing by.

When people have no prior warning, the recognition of danger is frequently delayed. People tend incorrectly to associate disaster signs with familiar or normal events, e.g., carbon monoxide or other toxic agents’ affects may be attributed to chronic ailments or the roar of high winds in the vortex of a tornado may be interpreted as the sound of a train passing by.






2. Period of Threat

If panic occurs at all, it is most likely during the period of threat. Panic is most likely to occur when people:
Perceive an immediate, severe danger,
Believe there is only one or a limited number of escape routes from the danger.
Believe those escape routes are closing (not closed) so that escape must be made quickly, and
Lack of communication to keep them informed of the situation.






3. Impact

Behavior expected during the impact of the disaster includes:

People trying to stay alive and protect immediate associates and



Behavior determined by the nature of the situation as the individual assesses it, e.g., holding onto things and people, seeking cover from flying objects and shielding children.

During the immediate post-impact period, although most persons may be temporarily stunned or confused and somewhat disoriented, they usually regain sufficient self-control within a brief time to extricate themselves if they are physically able to do so and to assist family members and associates.

People in impact zones cannot be expected for some while to act as efficiently and discerningly as they normally do.





4. Inventory

People begin to form a preliminary picture of individual conditions. It is a period of stocktaking and assimilation of impressions. If isolated, one is inclined to believe that he/she and his/her visible companions are the only victims or survivors. Concern for the security of one’s family becomes predominant. Sometimes, behavior appears in opposite extremes. Some individuals may act with the "best time of my life" attitude; others may exhibit distress resulting from a shaken self-image and an inescapable awareness of personal vulnerability and mortality.





5. Rescue

During this phase, activity is focused upon immediate help for survivors. Rapid recovery from emotional shock is the rule. One important exception is that which have been described as the "disaster syndrome". In this condition, the individual appears dazed, stunned, apathetic or "dead while alive". Behavior is disorganized; extreme suggestibility and hence vulnerability of the individual may be seen.

A related state frequently found is that of the "counter-disaster" syndrome which represents an active denial of the fear, anxiety and grief generated by the disaster. In this condition, there is a euphoric identification with the damages community, physical over-exertion and low efficiency often resulting in hasty and slipshod work. In general, there is an over-involvement in rescue activities and an uncritical acceptance and strong loyalty to "leaders" who emerge during the rescue activities.






6. Remedy

At this point, more deliberate and formal rescue and recovery activities are undertaken. There is anticipation of the long-term consequences of the disaster. Feelings of grief, anger and inadequacy usually appear. Stress is felt within the family and shows itself particularly in the behavior of children. The importance of "belonging" begins to emerge, with a need to allocate blame for consequences of the disaster itself. There is a beginning realization that changes necessitated by the disaster can be for better or worse. There is need for realistic planning and action.

Symptoms of stress observed immediately following the disaster, such as insomnia, digestive upsets and nervousness, which may appear in a large number of survivors, tend to subside. However, psychosomatic symptoms caused by the emotional stress of the disaster may be indistinguishable from resultant physiological effects (such as toxic symptoms or reactions to radiation exposure) and thus may overload medical treatment facilities.

In children, the quickest recovery from disaster disturbances may be found in families which accept regressive behavior, such as reappearance of thumb sucking or loss of bowel and bladder control, and encourage talking out and working through the emotional impact of the disaster. Slowest recovery rates among children are to be found in families in which there is a "dissociative-demanding" atmosphere or one in which discussion or attention to the disaster is discouraged.

Delayed emotional reactions may appear at this time among adults who have been busy providing supportive and comforting service for other family members or other families. After the others have recovered, the supporter may evidence a delayed grief reaction.






7. Recovery

This period may begin within a relatively short time after the disaster and extend for months or even years if a community has been severely damaged. The community and individuals attempt to recover former stability or achieve new forms of stability. Emphasis is on adaptation to changed conditions. Those with limited capacities for adaptation will begin to show signs of emotional stress and possible deterioration, e.g., the aged or middle aged may tend to feel overwhelmed and to give up when faced with the need of starting all over again. The anticipation of a favorable recovery is critical for all individuals. Without it, the community and individual demoralization and decline are likely to occur.